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Transistor ampli ers: Biasing and Small Signal Model Transistor ampli ers utilizing BJT or FET are similar in design and analysis. Accordingly we will discuss BJT ampli ers thoroughly. Then, similar FET circuits are brie y reviewed. Consider the circuit below. The operating point of the BJT is shown in the iC vCE space. iC RB iB + vBE + vCE __ iE VBB RC VCC Let us add a sinusoidal source with an amplitude of VBB in series with VBB . In response to this additional source, the base current will become iB + iB leading to the collector current of iC + iC and CE voltage of vCE + vCE . i C + i C RB i B + i B + + vBE + vBE _ _ + ~ VBB vCE + vCE RC VCC VBB For example, without the sinusoidal source, the base current is 150 A, iC = 22 mA, and vCE = 7 V (the Q point). If the amplitude of iB is 40 A, then with the addition of the sinusoidal source iB + iB = 150 + 40 cos( t) and varies from 110 to 190 A. The BJT operating point should remain on the load line and collector current and CE voltage change with changing base current while remaining on the load line. For example when base current is 190 A, the collector current is 28.6 mA and CE voltage is about 4.5 V. As can be seen from the gure above, the collector current will approximately be iC + iC = 22+6.6 cos( t) and CE voltage is vCE + vCE = 7 2.5 cos( t). The above example shows that the signal from the sinusoidal source VBB is greatly ampli ed and appears as changes either in collector current or CE voltage. It is clear from the gure that this happens as long as the BJT stays in the active-linear region. As the amplitude of iB is increased, the swings of BJT operating point along the load line become larger and ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 106 larger and, at some value of iB , BJT will enter either the cut-o or saturation region and the output signals will not be a sinusoidal function. Note: An important observation is that one should locate the Q point in the middle of the load line if we want to have the largest output signal. The above circuit, however, has two major problems: 1) The input signal, VBB , is in series with the VBB biasing voltage making design of previous two-port network di cult, and 2) The output signal is usually taken across RC as RC iC . This output voltage has a DC component which is of no interest and can cause problems in the design of the next-stage, two-port network. The DC voltage needed to bias the BJT (establish the Q point) and the AC signal of interest can be added together or separated using capacitor coupling as discussed below. Capacitive Coupling For DC voltages ( = 0), the capacitor is an open circuit (in nite impedance). For AC voltages, the impedance of a capacitor, Z = j/( C ), can be made su ciently small by choosing an appropriately large value for C (the higher the frequency, the lower C that one needs). This property of capacitors can be used to add and separate AC and DC signals. Example below highlights this e ect. Consider the circuit below which includes a DC source of +15 V 15 V and an AC source of vi = Vi cos( t). We are interR2 ested to calculate voltages vA and vB . The best method C1 A to solve this circuit is superposition. The circuit is broB ken into two circuits. In circuit 1, we kill the AC source vi + and keep the DC source. In circuit 2, we kill the DC R1 source and keep the AC source. Superposition principle states that vA = vA1 + vA2 and vB = vB 1 + vB 2 . R2 vA + vi C1 + v B +15 V R2 vA1 C1 R1 + +15 V R2 vA2 v B1 R1 + + vi C1 v B2 R1 Consider the rst circuit. It is driven by a DC source and, therefore, the capacitor will act as open circuit. The voltage vA1 = 0 as it is connected to ground and vB 1 can be found by voltage divider formula: vB 1 = 15R1 /(R1 + R2 ). As can be seen both vA1 and vB 1 are DC voltages. ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 107 In the second circuit, resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel. Let Rb = R1 R2 . The circuit is a high-pass lter: VA2 = Vi and VB 2 = Vi (Rb )/(Rb + 1/j C ). If we operate the circuit at frequency above the cut-o frequency of the lter, i.e., Rb 1/ C , we will have VB 2 VA2 = Vi and vB 2 vA2 = Vi cos( t). Therefore, vA = vA1 + vA2 = Vi cos( t) vB = v B 1 + v B 2 = R1 15 + Vi cos( t) R1 + R 2 Obviously, the capacitor is preventing the DC voltage to appear at point A, while the voltage at point B is the sum of DC signal from 15-V supply and the AC signal. Using capacitive coupling, we can recon gure our previous ampli er circuit as is shown in the gure below. Capacitive coupling is used extensively in transistor ampli ers. vCE + vCE vCE i C + i C VBB RB i B + i B + + vBE + vBE _ _ + ~ vCE + vCE RC VCC VBB BJT ampli er circuits are analyzed using superposition principle, similar to example above: 1) DC Biasing: Input signal is set to zero and capacitors act as open circuit. This analysis establishes the Q point in the active linear region. 2) AC Response: DC bias voltages are set to zero. The response of the circuit to an AC input signal is calculated and transfer function, input and output impedances, etc. are found. The break up of the problem into these two parts have an additional advantage as the requirement for accuracy are di erent in the two cases. For DC biasing, we are interested in locating the Q point roughly in the middle of active linear region. The exact location of the Q point is not important. Thus, a simple model, such as large-signal model of page 78 is quite adequate. We are, however, interested to compute the transfer function for AC signals quite accurately. Our large-signal model is not good for the desired accuracy and we will develop a model which is accurate for small AC signals below. FET-based ampli er are similar. FET should be biased similar to BJT. Analysis method is also similar and broken into DC biasing and AC response. ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 108 BJT Biasing VCC A simple bias circuit is shown. As we like to have only one power supply, the base circuit is also powered by VCC . (To avoid confusion, we will use capital letters to denote DC bias values e.g., IC .) Assuming that BJT is in active-linear state, we have: BE-KVL: VCC = IB RB + VBE RB iC VCC VBE RB CE-KVL: VCC = IC RC + VCE RC (VCC VBE ) VCE = VCC RB + iB VCC VBE IB = RB RC + vBE vCE __ IC = IB = VCE = VCC IC RC For a given circuit (known RC , RB , VCC , and BJT ) the above equations can be solved to nd the Q-point (IB , IC , and VCE ). Alternatively, one can use the above equation to design a BJT circuit (known ) to operate at a certain Q point. (Note: Do not memorize the above equations or use them as formulas, they can be easily derived from simple KVLs). Example 1: Find values of RC , RB in the above circuit with = 100 and VCC = 15 V so that the Q-point is IC = 25 mA and VCE = 7.5 V. Since the BJT is in active-linear region (VCE = 7.5 > V ), IB = IC / = 0.25 mA. Writing the KVLs that include VBE and VCE we get: BE-KVL: VCC + RB IB + VBE = 0 CE-KVL: VCC = IC RC + VCE 15 0.7 = 57.2 k 0.250 15 = 25 10 3 RC + 7.5 RB = RC = 300 Example 2: Consider the circuit designed in example 1. What is the Q point if = 200. We have RB = 57.2 k , RC = 300 , and VCC = 15 V but IB , IC , and VCE are unknown. They can be found by writing KVLs that include VBE and VCE : BE-KVL: VCC + RB IB + VBE = 0 IB = VCC VBE = 0.25 mA RB IC = IB = 50 mA CE-KVL: VCC = IC RC + VCE VCE = 15 300 50 10 3 = 0 ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 109 As VCE < v the BJT is not in active-linear region and the above equations are not valid. Values of IC and VCE should be calculated using the BJT model for saturation region. The above examples show the problem with our simple biasing circuit as the of a commercial BJT can depart by a factor of 2 from its average value given in the manufacturers spec sheet. Environmental conditions can also play an important role. In a given BJT, IC increases by 9% per C for a xed VBE . Consider a circuit which is tested to operate perfectly at 25 C. At a temperature of 35 C, IC will be roughly doubled and the BJT will be in saturation! The problem is that our biasing circuit xes the value of IB (independent of BJT parameters) and, as a result, both IC and VCE are directly proportional to BJT (see formulas in the previous page). A biasing scheme should be found that make the Q-point (IC and VCE ) independent of transistor and insensitive to the above problems Use negative feedback! VCC Stable biasing schemes This biasing scheme can be best analyzed and understood if we replace R1 and R2 voltage divider with its Thevenin equivalent: VBB = R2 VCC R1 + R 2 and RB = R1 RC R1 iC + iB R2 + vBE Analysis below also shows that the Q point is independent of BJT parameters: IE IC = IB __ R2 RE Thevenin Equivalent VCC { The emitter resistor, RE is a sneaky feedback. Suppose IC becomes larger than the designed value (larger , increase in temperature, etc.). Then, VE = RE IE will increase. Since VBB and RB do not change, KVL in the BE loop shows that IB should decrease which will reduce IC back to its design value. If IC becomes smaller than its design value opposite happens, IB has to increase and will increase and stabilize IC . vCE RC iC RB + + iB + vBE vCE __ RE VBB VBB VBE RB + RE BE-KVL: VBB = RB IB + VBE + IE RE IB = CE-KVL: VCC = RC IC + VCE + IE RE VCE = VCC IC (RC + RE ) Choose RB such that RB IB RE (this is the condition for the feedback to be e ective): VBB VBE RE ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 110 IC VBB VBE RE VCE = VCC IC (RC + RE ) VCC RC + R E (VBB VBE ) RE Note that now both IC and VCE are independent of ! One can appreciate the working of this biasing scheme by comparing it to the poor biasing circuit of page 109. In that circuit, IB was set by the values of VCC and RB . As a result, IC = IB was directly proportional to . In this circuit, KVL in BE loop gives VBB = RB IB + VBE + IE RE . If we choose RB IB IE RE or RB (IE /IB )RE RE (feedback condition above), the KVL reduces to VBB VBE + IE RE , forcing a constant IE independent of BJT parameters. As IC IE this will also xes the Q point of BJT. If BJT parameters change (di erent , change in temperature), the circuit forces IE to remain xed and changes IB ! Another important point follows from VBB VBE + IE RE . As VBE is not a constant and can change slightly (can drop to 0.6 or increase to 0.8 V), we need to ensure that I E RE is much larger than possible changes in VBE . As changes in VBE is about 0.1 V, we need to ensure that VE = IE RE 0.1 or VE > 10 0.1 = 1 V. Example: Design a stable bias circuit with a Q point of IC = 2.5 mA and VCE = 7.5 V. Transistor ranges from 50 to 200. Step 1: Find VCC : As we like to have the Q-point to be located in the middle of the load line, we set VCC = 2VCE = 2 7.5 = 15 V. Step 2: Find RC and RE : VCE = VCC IC (RC + RE ) RC + RE = 7.5 = 3 k 2.5 10 3 We are free to choose RC and RE (choice is usually set by the AC behavior which we will see later). We have to ensure, however, that VE = IE RE > 1 V or RE > 1/IE = 400 . Let s choose RE = 1 k and RC = 2 k for this example. RE . As any commercial BJT has a range Step 3: Find RB and VBB : We need to set RB of values and we want to ensure that the above inequality is always satis ed, we should use the minimum value: RB min RE RB = 0.1 min RE = 0.1 50 1, 000 = 5 k VBB VBE + IE RE = 0.7 + 2.5 10 3 103 = 3.2 V ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 111 Step 4: Find R1 and R2 R1 R2 = 5 k R1 + R 2 R2 3.2 = = = 0.21 R1 + R 2 15 RB = R 1 VBB VCC R2 = The above are two equations in two unknowns (R1 and R2 ). The easiest way to solve these equations are to divide the two equations to nd R1 and use that in the equation for VBB : R1 = 5 k = 24 k 0.21 R2 = 0.21 R1 + R 2 0.79R2 = 0.21R1 R2 = 6.4 k Reasonable commercial values for R1 and R2 are and 24 k and 6.2 k , respectively. Other Biasing Schemes As we will see later, value of Rb = R1 R2 appears in the formauls for the input resistance (and lower cut-o frequency) of ampli er con guration, greatly reducing the input resistance and increasing the value of the coupling capacitor. A simple, but e ective alternative is to use the Rc as the feedback resistor. We assume that the BJT is in active-linear regime. Since IB KCL I1 = IC + IC IC . Then: BE-KVL: Vcc = RC IC + RB IB + VBE IC , by I1 RB V cc Rc Vcc = (RC + RB / ) IC + VBE IC = If, RB / IC = Vcc VBE RC + RB / RC or RB RC , we will have (setting VBE = V ): Vcc V RC Since IC is independent of , the bias point is stable. We still need to prove that the BJT is in the active linear region. We write a KVL through BE and CE terminals: VCE = RB IB + VBE = RB IB + V > V ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 112 Since VCE > V , BJT is indeed in active regime. To see the negative feedback e ect, rewrite BE-KVL as: IB = Vcc V RC IC RB Suppose the circuit is operating and BJT is increased (e.g., increase in temperature). In that case IC will increase which raises the voltage across resistor RC (RC IC ). From the above equation, this will lead to a reduction in IB which, in turn, will decrease IC = IB and compensate for any increase in . If BJT is decreased (e.g., decrease in temperature), I C will decrease which reduces the voltage across resistor RC (RC IC ). From the above equation, this will lead to an increase in IB which, in turn, will increase IC = IB and compensate for any decrease in . Note: The drawback of this bias scheme is that the allowable AC signal on VCE is small. Since VCC VCC > V in order for the BJT to remain in active regime, we nd the amplitude of AC signal, VCC < RB IB = (RB / )IC . Since, RB / RC for bias stability thus, VCC RC IC . This is in contrast with the standard biasing with emitter resistor in which VCC is comparable to RC IC . Other Biasing Schemes VCC R1 Thevenin Equivalent VCC { We discussed using an emitter resistor to stabilize the bias point (Q point) of a BJT ampli er as is shown (Rc can be zero). There are two main issues associated with this bias con guration which may make it unsuitable for some applications. RC RC iC iC + iB + vBE RB vCE __ + iB + vBE + vCE __ R R R 2) Because VB > 0, a coupling capacitor is typically V needed to attach the input signal to the ampli er circuit. The combination of the coupling capacitor and the input resistance of the ampli er leads to a lower cut-o frequency for the ampli er as we discussed before, i.e., this biasing scheme leads to an AC ampli er. In some applications, we need DC ampli ers. Biasing with two voltage sources, discussed below, will solve this problem. 2 E BB E 3) Biasing with one voltage source requires 3 resistors (R1 , R2 , and RE ), a coupling capacitor, and possibly a by-pass capacitor. In integrated circuit chips, resistors and large capacitors take too much space. It is preferable to reduce their number as much as possible and replace their function with additional transistors. For IC applications, current-mirrors are usually used to bias the circuit as is discussed below. ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 113 Biasing with 2 Voltage Sources: Consider the biasing scheme as is shown. This biasing scheme is similar to bias with one voltage source. Basically, we have assigned a voltage of VEE to the ground (reference voltage) and chosen VEE = VBB . As such, all of the currents and voltages in the circuit should be identical to the bias with one power supply. We should nd that this is a stable bias point as long as RB RE . This is shown below: BE-KVL: VCC RC iC RB + iB + vBE __ RE RB IB + VBE + RE IE VEE = 0 IE IC = IB IE RB + RE IE = VEE VBE vCE V EE IE = VEE VBE RE + RB / Similar to the bias with one power supply, if we choose RB such that, RB RE , we get: VEE VBE = const RE = RC IC + VCE + RE IE VEE IC I E CE-KVL: VCC VCE = VCC + VEE IC (RC + RE ) = const Therefore, IE , IC , and VCE will be independent of BJT parameters (i.e., BJT ) and we have a stable bias point. Similar to stable bias with one power supply, we also need to ensure that RE IE 1 V to account for small possible variation in VBE . Bias with two power supplies has certain advantages over biasing with one power supply, it has two resistors, RB and RE (as opposed to three), and in fact, in most applications, we can remove RB altogether. In addition, in some con guration, we can directly couple the input signal to the ampli er without using a coupling capacitor (because VB 0). As such, such a con guration can also amplify DC signals. Both stable biasing schemes, with one or two power supplies, use RE as a negative feedback to x IE and make it independent of BJT parameters. In e ect, any biasing scheme which results in a constant IE , independent of BJT parameters, will be a stable biasing technique. VCC RC iC RB + iB + vBE vCE __ RE I V EE Schematically, all these biasing schemes can be illustrated with an ideal current source in the emitter circuit as is shown. For the circuits which include a current source, resistor RE is NOT needed for stable biasing anymore. For example, RE can be removed from common emit tor ampli ers with bypass capacitors. ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 114 Because of elimination of RB and RE (or reducing RE ), biasing with a current source is the preferred way in most integrated circuits. Such a biasing can be achieved with a current mirror circuit. Biasing in ICs: Current Mirrors A large family of BJT circuit, including current mirrors, di erential ampli ers, and emittercoupled logic circuits include identical BJT pairs. In most cases, two identical BJTs are manufactured together on one chip in order to ensure that their parameters are approximately equal (Note that if you take two commercial BJTs, e.g., two 2N3904, there is no guaranty that 1 = 2 , while if they are grown together on a chip, 1 2 . For our analysis, we assume that both BJTs are identical.) Consider the circuit shown with identical transistors, Q1 and Q2 . Because both bases and emitters of the transistors are connected together, KVL leads to vBE 1 = vBE 2 . As we discussed before, BJT operation is controlled by vBE . As vBE 1 = vBE 2 and transistors are identical, they should have similar iE , iB and ic : I ref 2iE iC iC Q1 + vBE1 _ iE iE Io = i c = +1 2iE iE 2iE +2 Iref = ic + = + = iE +1 +1 +1 +1 1 Io = = Iref +2 1 + 2/ iE iB = +1 KCL: Io +1 + vBE2 _ V EE Q2 iE (We have used iC = iB and iE = ( + 1)iB to illustrate impact of .) For 1, Io Iref (with an accurancy of 2/ ). This circuit is called a current mirror as the two transistors work in tandem to ensure that current Io remains the same as Iref no matter what circuit is attached to the collector of Q2 . As such, the circuit behaves as a current source and can be used to bias BJT circuits. VCC RC I ref Io iC Q1 _ iE ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 + vBE1 + vBE2 _ V EE Q2 iE 115 Value of Iref can be set in many ways. The simplest is by using a resistor Rc as is shown. By KVL, we have: VCC = RC Iref + vBE 1 VEE Iref = VCC + VEE vBE 1 = const RC Current mirror circuits are widely used for biasing BJTs. In the simple current mirror circuit above, Io = Iref with a relative accuracy of 2/ and Iref is constant with an accuracy of small changes in vBE 1 . Variation of current mirror circuit, such as Wilson current mirror and Widlar current mirror (See Sedra and Smith) are available that lead to Io = Iref with a higher accuracy and compensate for 2/ and changes in vBE e ects. Wilson mirror is especially popular because it replace Rc with a transistor. The right hand part of the current mirror circuit can be duplicated such that one current mirror circuit can bias several BJT circuits as is shown. In fact, by coupling output of two of the right hand parts, integer multiples of Iref can be made for biasing circuits which require a higher bias current. VCC RC I ref Io 2Io Io V EE Biasing FETs: Bias circuits for FET ampli ers are similar to BJT circuits. Some examples are shown in below. (Exercise Find the bias point of the FET in each of the circuits below.) R2 R1 RS RD VDD RD iD VDD V DD V DD RG iD RD iD R1 R Io I ref RS V SS Standard Bias Bias through RD Bias with 2 power supplies ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 FET Current Mirror 116 BJT Small Signal Model and AC ampli ers We calculated the DC behavior of the BJT (DC biasing) with a simple large-signal model as shown. In active-linear region, this model is simply: vBE = 0.7 V, iC = iB . This model is su cient for calculating the Q point as we are only interested in ensuring su cient design space for the ampli er, i.e., Q point should be in the middle of the load line in the active linear region. In fact, for our good biasing scheme with negative feedback, the Q point location is independent of BJT parameters. (and, therefore, independent of model used!) iB iC v vBE vsat vCE A comparison of the simple model with the iv characteristics of the BJT shows that our simple largesignal model is very crude and is not accurate for AC analysis. For example, the input AC signal results in small changes in vBE around 0.7 V (Q point) and corresponding changes in iB . The simple model cannot be used to calculate these changes (It assumes vBE is constant!). Also for a xed iB , iC is not exactly constant as is assumed in the simple model (see iC vs vCE graphs). As a whole, the simple large signal model is not su cient to describe the AC behavior of BJT ampli ers where more accurate representations of the ampli er gain, input and output resistance, etc. are needed. A more accurate, but still linear, model can be developed by assuming that the changes in transistor voltages and currents due to the AC signal are small compared to corresponding Q-point values and using a Taylor series expansion. Consider function f (x). Suppose we know the value of the function and all of its derivative at some known point, x0 . Then, value ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 117 of the function in the neighborhood of x0 can be found from the Taylor Series expansion as: f (x0 + x) = f (x0 ) + x df dx + x=x0 ( x)2 d2 f 2 dx2 + ... x=x0 Close to our original point of x0 , x is small and the high order terms of this expansion (terms with ( x)n , n = 2, 3, ...) usually become very small. Typically, we consider only the rst order term, i.e., f (x0 + x) f (x0 ) + x df dx x=x0 The Taylor series expansion can be similarly applied to function of two or more variables such as f (x, y ): f (x0 + x, y0 + y ) f (x0 , y0 ) + x f x + y x0 ,y0 f y x0 ,y0 In a BJT, there are four parameters of interest: iB , iC , vBE , and vCE . The BJT iv characteristics plots, specify two of the above parameters, vBE and iC in terms of the other two, iB and vCE , i.e., vBE is a function of iB and vCE (written as vBE (iB , vCE ) similar to f (x, y )) and iC is a function of iB and vCE , iC (iB , vCE ). Let s assume that BJT is biased and the Q point parameters are IB , IC , VBE and VCE . We now apply a small AC signal to the BJT. This small AC signal changes vCE and iB by small values around the Q point: iB = IB + iB vCE = VCE + vCE The AC changes, iB and vCE results in AC changes in vBE and iC that can be found from Taylor series expansion in the neighborhood of the Q point, similar to expansion of f (x0 + x, y0 + y ) above: vBE (IB + iB , VCE + vCE ) = VBE + iC (IB + iB , VCE + vCE ) = IC + vBE iB iC iB ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 iB + Q iB + Q iC vCE vBE vCE vCE Q vCE Q 118 where all partial derivatives are calculated at the Q point and we have noted that at the Q point, vBE (IB , VCE ) = VBE and iC (IB , VCE ) = IC . We can denote the AC changes in vBE and iC as vBE and iC , respectively: vBE (IB + iB , VCE + vCE ) = VBE + vBE iC (IB + iB , VCE + vCE ) = IC + iC So, by applying a small AC signal, we have changed iB and vCE by small amounts, iB and vCE , and BJT has responded by changing , vBE and iC by small AC amounts, vBE and iC . From the above two sets of equations we can nd the BJT response to AC signals: vBE = vBE vBE iB + vCE , iB vCE iC = iC iC iB + vCE iB vCE where the partial derivatives are the slope of the iv curves near the Q point. We de ne hie vBE , iB hre vBE , vCE hf e iC , iB hoe iC vCE Thus, response of BJT to small signals can be written as: vBE = hie iB + hre vCE iC = hf e iB + hoe vCE which is our small-signal model for BJT. We now need to relate the above analytical model to circuit elements so that we can solve BJT circuits. Consider the expression for vBE vBE = hie iB + hre vCE Each term on the right hand side should have units of Volts. Thus, hie should have units of resistance and hre should have no units (these are consistent with the de nitions of hie and hre .) Furthermore, the above equation is like a KVL: the voltage drop between base and emitter is written as sum of voltage drops across two elements. The voltage drop across the rst element is hie iB . So, it is resistor with a value of hie . The voltage drop across the second element is hre vCE . Thus, it is dependent voltage source. B i + + v E V = hie iB 1 + V2 = hre v CE B E h ie + v ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 i hre v CE + 119 Now consider the expression for iC : iC = hf e iB + hoe vCE Each term on the right hand side should have units of Amperes. Thus, hf e should have no units and hoe should have units of conductance (these are consistent with the de nitions of hoe and hf e .) Furthermore, the above equation is like a KCL: the collector current is written as sum of two currents. The current in rst element is hf e iB . So, it is dependent current source. The current in the second element is proportional to hoe / vCE . So it is a resistor with the value of 1/hoe . i C + i1 = h fe iB v i = h oe v 2 CE i C C 1/hoe CE Now, if put the models for BE and CE terminals together we arrive at the small signal hybrid model for BJT. It is similar to the hybrid model for a two-port network (Carlson Chap. 14). C + hfe iB v CE E E i B B + v E BE _ i h ie hre v CE C + - C + hfe iB 1/hoe v CE - E The small-signal model is mathematically valid only for signals with small amplitude. But the model is so useful that is often used for sinusoidal signals with amplitudes approaching those of Q-point parameters by using average values of h parameters. h parameters are given in manufacturer s spec sheets for each BJT. It should not be surprising to note that even in a given BJT, h parameter can vary substantially depending on manufacturing statistics, operating temperature, etc. Manufacturer s spec sheets list these h parameters and give the minimum and maximum values. Traditionally, the geometric mean of the minimum and maximum values are used as the average value in design (see table). Since hf e = iC / iB , BJT = iC /iB is sometimes called hF E in manufacturers spec sheets and has a value quite close to hf e . In most electronic text books, , hF E and hf e are used interchangeably. ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 120 Typical hybrid parameters of a general-purpose 2N3904 NPN BJT Minimum 1 0.5 10 4 100 1 25 10 r = hie (k ) hre hf e hoe ( S) ro = 1/hoe (k ) re = hie /hf e ( ) Maximum 10 8 10 4 400 40 1,000 25 Average* 3 2 10 4 200 6 150 15 * Geometric mean. As hre is small, it is usually ignored in analytical calculations as it makes analysis much simpler. This model, called the hybrid- model, is most often used in analyzing BJT circuits. In order to distinguish this model from the hybrid model, most electronic text books use a di erent notation for various elements of the hybrid- model: r = hie B i i B C + v BE ro = C 1 hoe = hf e B i i B C + hfe iB h ie 1/hoe _ v BE = i r B C ro _ E E The above hybrid- model includes a current-controlled current source. This implies that BJT behavior is controlled by iB . In reality, vBE controls the BJT behavior. A variant of the hybrid- model can be developed which includes a voltage-controlled current source. This can be achieved by noting it the above model that vBE = hie iB and hf e iB = hf e vBE = gm vBE hie hf e Transfer conductance hie 1 hie re = Emitter resistance gm hf e gm ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 B i i B C + v BE gm vBE r C ro _ E 121 FET Small Signal Model and AC ampli ers Similar to BJT, the simple large-signal model of FET (page 94) is su cient for nding the bias point; but we need to develop a more accurate model for analysis of AC signals. The main issue is that the FET large signal model indicates that iD only depends on vGS and is independent of vDS in the active region. In reality, iD increases slightly with vDS in the active region. We can develop a small signal model for FET in a manner similar to the procedure described in detail for the BJT. The FET characteristics equations specify two of the FET parameters, iG and iD , in terms of the other two, vGS and vDS . (Actually FET is simpler than BJT as iG = 0 at all times.) As before, we write the FET parameters as a sum of DC bias value and a small AC signal, e.g., iD = ID + iD . Performing a Taylor series expansion, similar to pages 118 and 119, we get: iG (VGS + vGS , VDS + vDS ) = 0 iD (VGS + vGS , VDS + vDS ) = iD (VGS , VDS ) + iD vGS vGS + Q iD vDS vDS Q Since iG (VGS + vGS , VDS + vDS ) = IG + iG and iD (VGS + vGS , VDS + vDS ) = ID + iD , we nd the AC components to be: iG = 0 and iD = iD vGS vGS + Q iD vDS vDS Q De ning gm iD vGS and ro iD vDS We get: iG = 0 and iD = gm vGS + ro vDS This results in the hybrid- model for the FET as is shown. Note that the FET hybrid- model is similar to the BJT hybrid- model with r . ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2006 G i = 0 i G D + v gm vGS D ro GS _ S 122

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