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Table of contents Theory and practice of A definitive approach M andar J . Khurjekar B.E. Electronics and Telecommunication Engg., (C.O.E.P.) University of Pune; MSc Tech (Instrumentation Design & Applications), University of Manchester, U.K. Formerly, Principal and Dean, Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune. i ii Optical Fiber Communication First Indian Edition, April, 2012 This Book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded resources. Reprinted Material is quoted with permission, and resources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable d ata and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includ ing photocopying, microfilming, and recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of Chinttan Publications does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Chinttan Publications for such copying. The publisher believes that the contents of this book do not violet any existing copyright/intellectual property of others in any manner whatsoever. However, in the event, the author has been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe. All export rights for this book vest exclusively with Chinttan Publications. Unauthorised export is a violation of terms of sale and is subject to legal action. Direct all enquiries to Chinttan Publications: 91-9226269333 or to the distributors listed in our catalogue. Customer Care: 9226269333 To receive SMS about the additional information about this book and new books published related to your branch time to time: type class-branch-college e.g., be-comp-dypiet or be-etc-viit , and send to 9226269333 . After final year, it will be deleted. The Indian Edition: 396.00 Theory and practice of Optical Fiber Communication, A definitive approach By Mandar J. Khurjekar ISBN 81-89194-09-7 April, 2012, Chinttan Publications Published by Chinttan Publications, 4/8, Anandnagar, Paud Road, Kothrud , Pune 411038., Tel.: 9226269333. E-mail: chinttanpublications@rediffmail.com Table of contents Printed in India Contents Editor s note [ix] Preface [x] Acknowledgements [xii] Dedication [xv] Syllabus references [xvi] [1 64] 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1.1 Electromagnetic spectrum and optical spectral bands 10 1.1.3 1.1.4 1.1.5 1.2 Facts about communication networks and optical fiber communication 12 Networks 12 Comparison of optical fiber communication and other communication systems 16 RAY THEORY TRANSMISSION 16 1.2.1 Total Internal Reflection (TIR) 17 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.3 Acceptance angle 18 Numerical aperture 18 ELECTROMAGNETIC MODE THEORY FOR OPTICAL PROPAGATION 22 1.3.1 Phase and group velocity 22 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.4 1.5 Cut off wavelength and group delay 23 Propagation modes and modes in the fiber 25 1.3.3.1 Mode coupling (mode transfer) in fiber 30 1.3.3.2 FIBER TYPES 32 Modal Noise 31 FIBER MATERIAL AND FABRICATION 36 1.5.1 Fiber Materials 36 1.5.2 Fiber material fabrication 39 1.5.2.1 1.5.2.2 1.5.2.3 1.5.2.4 1.6 Vapor Axial Deposition (VAD) 41 Outside Vapor Deposition (OVD) or Outside Vapor Phase Deposition (OVPD) 42 Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD) 43 Plasma enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD) 43 FIBER OPTIC CABLE 44 1.6.1 GYXTW fiber optic cable 45 1.6.2 Fiber optic cable design 45 1.6.3 1.6.4 Fiber optic cable classification 48 Cable selection criteria 50 1.6.4.1 1.6.4.2 1.7 Parameters to be considered while designing fiber optic cables 51 Calculation of attenuation per kilometer 52 1.6.5 Testing of cables 54 COMPARISON TABLES 55 Solved Examples 57 iii iv Optical Fiber Communication Drill Problems 58 Review Questions 59 References for further reading 64 [65 114] 2.1 ATTENUATION IN OPTICAL FIBER 65 2.1.1 Absorption 66 2.1.2 Rayleigh scattering 67 2.1.3 Radiative losses 68 2.1.4 Scattering losses 69 2.1.4.1 Raman scattering or the Raman Effect 72 2.1.4.2 Brillouin scattering 73 2.1.5 2.1.6 2.2 Attenuation or loss characteristics for all glass optical fiber 74 Plastic cladd silica core (PCS) and its characteristics 75 SIGNAL DISTORTION OR DISPERSION IN OPTICAL FIBERS 78 2.2.1 Intermodal dispersion 80 2.2.2 Intramodal dispersion or chromatic dispersion 85 2.2.3 Dispersion related parameters 91 2.3 SPECIAL FIBERS 94 2.4 FIBER NON-LINEARITIES 99 2.5 STATE OF ART: SOLITON 101 2.6 COMPARISON TABLES 102 Solved Examples 104 Drill Problems 105 Review Questions 108 References for further reading 113 [115 194] 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL SOURCES 115 3.2 LEDS STRUCTURES 116 3.2.1 3.2.2 Double hetero structure LED sources 119 3.2.3 Surface emitting LED (SLED) 121 3.2.4 3.3 PN junction light emitting diode (Homo-junction LED) 117 Edge-emitting LED 122 CHARACTERISTICS OF LED DEVICES 123 3.3.1 LED power versus forward current 123 3.3.2 LED spectral width 124 3.3.3 Output spectrum 124 3.3.4 Internal Quantum efficiency 124 3.3.5 External power efficiency 125 3.3.6 Fresnel reflection and transmission coefficients 125 3.3.7 Bandwidth and beamwidth 126 3.3.8 3-dB bandwidths 126 3.3.9 Modulation bandwidth 127 3.3.10 Electrical bandwidth 127 3.3.11 Optical bandwidth 128 Table of contents 3.4 LED DRIVE CIRCUITS 129 3.4.1 Digital transmission 129 3.4.2 Analog transmission 130 3.5 LASERs 130 3.5.1 Fundamental lasing operation 131 3.5.2 Stimulated emission 132 3.5.3 Multimode LASER output spectrum center wavelength 133 3.5.4 Threshold condition for lasing 134 3.6 3.5.5 Single mode operation 135 3.5.6 Types of LASERs 136 SEMICONDUCTOR LASER 139 3.6.1 Threshold current density for semiconductor lasers 141 3.6.2 DFB (Distributed Feedback) Lasers 142 3.6.3 Performance comparison of DFB and DBR 143 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6 3.6.7 3.6.8 Gain guided lasers 144 Index guided lasers 144 Quantum well lasers 145 Vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSEL) 146 LASER Characteristics 149 3.6.8.1 3.6.8.2 3.6.8.3 3.6.8.4 3.6.8.5 3.7 3.8 3.9 Threshold current temperature dependence 150 Dynamic response 151 Frequency chirp 151 Mode hopping 151 Reliability 152 3.6.9 Laser drive circuits 151 MODULATION OF OPTICAL SOURCES 153 3.7.1 Types of optical modulation 154 3.7.2 Line coding 155 3.7.3 Most popular line codes 156 3.7.4 Properties of line codes 157 3.7.5 Applications of Line codes for LAN (Local Area Network) 157 3.7.6 Block codes 159 SPLICING OF FIBERS 159 3.8.1 Splicing (joining together) 160 3.8.1.1 Splicing method selection criteria 162 OPTICAL FIBER CONNECTORS 162 3.9.1 Physical contact (PC) or Butt-joint or Butt-contact connectors 164 3.9.1.1 Straight sleeve butt-joint connectors 165 3.9.1.2 Tapered sleeve or biconical butt-joint connectors 165 3.9.1.3 Common types of physical contact connectors 166 3.9.2 3.9.3 3.9.4 3.9.5 3.9.6 Expanded Beam Connector 168 Typical specifications of commonly used optical connectors 171 Connector end face preparation 171 Installation of fiber optic connectors 172 Losses after splicing and connections 173 3.9.6.1 3.9.6.2 3.9.6.3 Intrinsic losses 173 Extrinsic losses 174 End separation or gap misalignment 175 v vi Optical Fiber Communication 3.9.6.4 3.10 Reflection loss 176 POWER LAUNCHING AND COUPLING 176 3.10.1 Lensing schemes for coupling improvements 178 3.10.1.1 GaAs/AlGaAs spherical ended fiber coupled LED 178 3.10.1.2 A truncated spherical micro lens 179 3.10.1.3 Integral lens structure 179 3.10.2 3.10.3 3.10.4 3.11 LASER diode to fiber coupling 180 Equilibrium NA 180 Coupling efficiency of source and fiber 181 COMPARISON TABLES 181 Solved Examples 183 Drill Problems 186 Review Questions 188 Reference for further reading 194 [195 250] 4.1 INTRODUCTION 195 4.2 OPTICAL DETECTORS 196 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.3 PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBES (PMT) 200 4.3.1 4.4 Optical communication bands 198 Characteristics of photodetectors 198 Working of PMT 201 SEMICONDUCTOR PHOTODETECTORS 205 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 Reach through diode (RAPD) 209 4.4.4 III-V alloys photodiodes (SAM-APD) 212 4.4.5 4.4.6 4.5 The PIN diode 205 Avalanche Photodiode (APD) 207 Selection and design criteria for photodetection 212 Relative merits and demerits of photodiodes 214 OPTICAL RECEIVERS 215 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 Receiver structures 216 Low impedance front end amplifier for optical receiver 217 4.5.4 High impedance (integrating) front end amplifier 217 4.5.5 4.6 Optical receiver capacitance and bandwidth 215 The transimpedance front end amplifier 218 NOISE IN OPTICAL RECEIVER 219 4.6.1 Photodetector power SNR 220 4.6.2 4.6.3 SNR for analog receiver 223 4.6.4 4.6.3.1 Limits on S/N ratio 223 Thermal noise in transimpedance front end 225 4.6.5 Other considerations of noise 226 4.6.6 4.7 Noise sources in a simple optical receiver 220 Rise and fall time of the photo detector 228 4.6.7 Measurement of noise using eye diagram 229 PHOTO TRANSISTORS 231 4.7.1 Phototransistor structure 231 4.7.2 Phototransistor characteristics 232 Table of contents 4.7.3 Characteristics of photo-transistor under different light intensities 233 4.7.4 vii Modes of operation of phototransistor 234 4.8 NOISE-EQUIVALENT POWER (NEP) 235 4.8.1 Bit-error rate (BER) 236 4.9 OTHER PHOTODETECTION SCHEMES (METHODS) 237 4.9.1 Photovoltaic effect 237 4.10 4.9.2 Photo resistive effect 237 CONNECTORS FOR PHOTODETECTORS 238 4.11 STATE OF ART: PHOTODETECTORS 239 4.12 COMPARISON TABLE 240 Solved Examples 241 Drill Problems 245 Review Questions 247 References for further reading 250 [251 304] 5.1 POINT TO POINT OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION LINKS 251 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 Choices of components in point-to-point optical fiber link design 252 Simplex point-to-point optical link 253 5.1.4 5.2 General design considerations in point-to-point optical link 252 Power loss model for point-to-point fiber optic link 254 OPTICAL LINK POWER BUDGET 255 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 Optical detector selection criteria for power budget and rise time budget 257 Power penalty in link power budget 259 5.2.4 Sources of power penalty 260 5.2.5 5.3 5.4 Optical source selection criteria for power budget and rise time budget 256 Optical link power budget examples 262 RISE TIME BUDGET 268 ANALOG LINKS 270 5.4.1 CNR (Carrier to Noise Ratio) 271 5.4.2 Photo detector noise 271 5.4.3 5.4.4 Relative intensity noise 272 Multi channel transmission techniques 272 5.4.4.1. 5.4.4.2 5.5 Vestigial Side Band-Amplitude Modulation (VSB-AM) 273 Frequency modulation (FM) 274 5.4.4.3 Sub Carrier Multiplexing (SCM) 274 OPTICAL FIBER MEASUREMENTS 275 5.5.1 Fiber optic test procedures (FOTP) 275 5.5.2 Attenuation measurement in optical fiber 276 5.5.2.1 5.5.2.2 5.5.2.3 5.6 Attenuation measurement using cutback technique 276 Total fiber attenuation measurement using white light source (a cutback technique) 277 Attenuation measurement using insertion loss method 278 OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER (OTDR) 279 5.6.1 5.6.2 Possible backscatter plot 281 Backscattered optical power calculations 283 5.6.3 OTDR receiver specifications 284 5.6.4 OTDR - distance measurement 284 viii Optical Fiber Communication 5.6.5 5.7 OTDR measurement 285 OPTICAL FIBER TRANSDUCERS 286 5.7.1 5.7.2 5.7.3 Pressure transducer using discrete optical devices 288 5.7.4 Force transducers 290 5.7.5 5.7.6 5.8 Non-contact displacement type transducers 285 Pressure transducer using optical fiber 288 Temperature Transducer 290 Optical level detector 291 COMPARISON TABLE 292 Solved Examples 293 Drill Problems 297 Review Questions 300 References for further reading 304 [305 392] 6.1 INTRODUCTION TO WDM 305 6.1.1 6.2 Fiber bandwidth considerations 306 WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (WDM) 306 6.2.1 Operation of simple WDM systems 308 6.2.1.1 Demultiplexing of WDM channel 308 6.2.1.2 Tasks in a WDM Network 309 6.2.1.3 Typical specifications of WDM 309 6.2.1.4 Design parameters of WDM systems 309 6.2.2 6.2.1.5 Parameters to be considered for WDM system design 310 Examples of WDM 310 6.2.3 Types of WDM 311 6.2.3.1 6.2.3.2 6.2.3.3 6.2.4 Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM) 312 Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) 313 Comparison of WDM, CWDM and DWDM 316 WDM or DWDM Standards 317 6.2.4.1 6.2.5 O and L band in optical domain 317 6.2.4.2 ITU-T standard for transmission of DWDM 318 Key components for WDM systems 318 6.2.5.1 6.2.5.2 Tunable optical filter 320 6.2.5.3 6.2.5.4 Dielectric thin film filter 321 Optical ADD/DROP multiplexer (ADM) 321 6.2.5.5 Optical cross connect (OXC) 322 6.2.5.6 6.3 Tunable DBR Laser 319 Optical gateway 322 6.2.5.7 Variable optical attenuator (VOA) 323 FIBER OPTIC COUPLERS 324 6.3.1 Important characteristics of fiber optic coupler 325 6.3.2 Classification of coupler 327 6.3.3 6.3.4 Basic star coupler 328 Fused star coupler 328 6.3.4.1 Tap coupler 331 6.3.4.2 Ladder coupler or tree coupler 333 Table of contents 6.3.5 Diffusion couplers 334 6.3.5.1 Evanescent (short-lived or temporary) wave coupler 334 6.3.5.2 Radiative coupler or fused biconical taper coupler 335 6.3.6 6.3.7 6.3.8 6.3.9 6.3.10 Area-splitting coupler 335 Beam-splitter coupler 337 Wavelength-selective coupler 337 Variable coupler 338 Circulator 338 6.3.11 6.3.12 6.3.13 6.3.14 6.3.15 6.3.16 6.3.17 6.3.10.1 Three port circulator 338 6.3.10.2 Four port circulator 339 6.3.10.3 Circulators with FBG (an extended ADD/DROP multiplexer) 339 Grating 341 6.3.11.1 Grating profiles 341 6.3.11.2 Characteristics of In-fiber Bragg grating 342 6.3.11.3 Basic parameters of the grating 342 6.3.11.4 Types of gratings according to multiplexing and demultiplexing requirements 342 6.3.11.5 Applications of In-fiber Bragg grating 343 Isolator 343 6.3.12.1 Faraday Effect 344 6.3.12.2 Simple Isolator 345 6.3.12.3 Polarisation independent isolator 346 Splitter 346 6.3.13.1 Beam splitter 346 6.3.13.2 Active beam splitter or Y junction switch or Y junction beam splitter 347 Wavelength converter 347 6.3.14.1 Amplitude gain crosstalk in SOAs 348 6.3.14.2 Cross-phase modulation in SOAs 348 6.3.14.3 Four-Wave Mixing (FWM) in SOAs 349 6.3.14.4 Difference Frequency Generation (DFG) 349 6.3.14.5 Frequency shifting with acousto-optic modulators 349 6.3.14.6 Optoelectronic regenerator 350 Wavelength Router 350 6.3.15.1 Wavelength router design using an AWG demultiplexer 351 Passive linear bus 353 WDM architectures 353 6.3.18 Wavelength shifting and wavelength reuse 356 6.3.18.1 Passive wavelength routing 357 6.3.18.2 Active wavelength shifting 357 6.3.18.3 Switching 358 6.3.18.4 Buffering in optical switching 359 6.3.19 6.3.20 6.3.21 6.3.22 Data-format conversion methods 359 Protocols for optical networks 359 Modes and response in WDM or DWDM 360 Popular multiplexing methods 361 6.3.22.1 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 361 6.3.22.2 6.3.22.3 6.3.22.4 Subcarrier Multiplexing (SCM) 361 Code-division multiplexing (CDM) 362 Space-division multiplexing (SDM) 362 ix x Optical Fiber Communication 6.3.23 6.3.24 6.4 Multiple access schemes 363 State of art: WDM components 364 OPTICAL AMPLIFIERS 364 6.4.1 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) 367 6.4.1.1 6.4.1.2 6.4.2 Simple SOAs 367 Travelling wave amplifier (TWA or TWSLA) 368 Gain saturation power of SOA 370 6.4.2.1 Gain profiles of various SOAs 371 6.4.3 6.4.2.2 Measurement of optical amplifier gain using optical spectrum analyzer 371 Gain and bandwidth calculations of FPA and SOA 372 6.4.4 6.4.5 Optical amplifier noise 373 Advantages and disadvantages of SOA 374 6.4.6 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA) 375 6.4.6.1 EDFA designs 376 6.4.6.2 6.4.6.3 6.5 Gain in EDFA 377 EDFA power conversion efficiency and gain 378 6.4.6.4 Comparison between doped fiber and conventional repeater 379 SWITCHES AND MODULATORS 379 6.5.1 6.5.2 Modulator based on Mach Zehnder interferometer 380 Photonic switching 380 6.5.2.1 6.5.2.2 Properties of photonic switching 380 Characteristics of photonic switching 381 6.5.2.3 Types of photonic switches 381 Solved Examples 381 Drill Problems 382 Review Questions 383 References for further reading 392 Lab Experiment 1 : To evaluate numerical aperture (NA) of a given fiber using a source of light. 393 Lab Experiment Lab Experiment 2 : Measurement of numerical aperture using a scanning photodetector and a rotating stage. 394 3 : Measurement of attenuation of different optical fiber cable lengths. 395 Lab Experiment Lab Experiment 4 : To study the effect of bending on attenuation in optical fiber. 397 5 : Measurement of attenuation of optical fiber filament. 398 Lab Experiment Lab Experiment 6 : To note mode field distribution or Gaussian beam in optical sources. 399 7 : To plot optical and electrical characteristics of light sources. 400 Lab Experiment Lab Experiment 8 : To plot frequency response of detector with different load values of resistor. 401 9 : Build and test simple links for analog and digital signal. 402 Lab Experiment Lab Experiment 10 : Study of optical instrument: OTDR. 402 11 : Study of optical instrument: Optical Power Meter. 402 APPENDIX APPENDIX A B : : Popular wavelengths. 405 Chronology of key events in optical communications. 405 APPENDIX APPENDIX C D : : Notations. 406 Short forms and abbreviations. 406 APPENDIX APPENDIX E F : : Major constants, units and symbols. 407 Parametric tables. 409 Index 411 Editor's Note Fiber technology has matured sufficiently so that many books have been written on the subject. Some of these books are detailed in terms of theoretical and mathematical content, and the beginner may find the level difficult. Though many books are published, only the requirement is the neat dissection of the contents, differentiation and classification in the parts yet retaining details of topics. This approach allows fast accessibility to the contents, ready reference at a glance and thus becomes less brain teasing reading. Those who are already mastered this subject may also find this book very helpful because every detail of the subject will be readily available to them. We have used a definitive approach, though the subject itself is generalized because of rapid evolution in technology . At some extent, the contents should be definite to study upon or work upon. Thus, the definite platform is formed and having this platform one can stretch his/her knowledge or research on any particular topic and go on. We have simplified the language as much as possible because though every beginner, practicing engineer and masters have gone through the terminology of the subjects or he may have command on the language but the observation is that everybody always prefers easy and user -friendly version for everything (whether it is a book or anything) they use. Thus, we have preferred easiest language and most common terminology which in use by any level of reader. This text is intended as easy and definitive, while giving the reader the necessary information to understand the design, operation, and capabilities of optical fiber communication systems. Since the developments in optical communication are rapid ly changing, the contents are continuously becoming generalized that the fixity of tangibility of any set up or equipment is less definite. However, we have kept only those technologies and set ups which are in use today and other relevant topics are also taken into account. We had to review and rearrange the sequence of the contents several times because almost all topics are interrelated and can be applied with many combinations. We have tried to arrange the contents in logical and learning sequence. However, it is quite difficult to classify each topic chapter wise as they are so much interrelated that while going through or reading first chapter , one may have to refer other chapters (say third or sixth chapter) for linking the topics and the subject itself is vast that no one book can suffice whole encyclopedia of optical communication. Tree structures, comparison table are given prominence wherever there was a scope within the contents and are used to make those readily usable and it help as ready reference to summarize. The table of contents has also been edited carefully by which reader can get the whole idea of the subject at a glance and specific contents can be found in subject index. Prof. Khurjekar welcomed our suggestions and gave maximum input and technical expertise out of his eighteen years of experience. He has modern day approach in writing and that is reflected in the book. I hope the students, faculties and industry professionals or any level of reader will find this book useful as a well -rounded reference. Being technical editor, I have edited more than two hundred books for the last twelve years and still learning and making improvement in the presentation skills and lan guage processing. I learnt a lot in the editing of Embedded systems design and RTOS and Electronic product design" last year. Using this experience, I have concentrated much on the language to make it simple, neutral and lucid. I believe any level of reader can digest this language and those are intellectually higher will also welcome this type of presentation. Our approach to the contents in the book should allow reader a definitive kind understanding. Those who want to master this subject; can start with this book as it has a vast and never ending scope for research and practice. Also, the reader should refer other books to get more understanding about the subject. I personally feel that publishing more books on this subject written in variety of ways and from different views wil l be still insufficient to cover the whole of this subject fully. Mr. Chinttan N. Dewalia D.I.E. (Institute of Polytechnic Engg, Lonere, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Tech. University) B. E. Instrumentation Engg. (Dr. D.Y.Patil College of Engg., Pune) Preface Communication using optical fibers has taken over many of the tasks previously done by copper systems. Fiber optic communications developed very quickly after the first low-loss fibers were introduced in 1971 by Cornig. The advancement in research and development on optical fiber communication networks have reached a level that some of these principles are being moved from the research laboratories to the formal or graduate course. Optical fiber systems are now common in installations and application s. The demand for more transmission bandwidth (especially, for Internet and business applications) requires design of fiber systems carrying information at terabit per second rates over great transmission distances. Now, Submarine fiber telephone cables are installed to transmit and deliver telephone messages between the major exchanges, the lan d-based long-distance fiber telephone network. Metropolitan area networks (MANs) have become significant parts of the fiber industry. Bringing fiber connections to the home is still an aim. Traditionally, telecommunications are classified based on the physical properties of the channel. That is, fixed -line or wiredcommunications and wireless or radio communications. Today s core networks and metropolitan area networks are entirely based on optical fiber systems. Optical fiber technology has become essential to the information world in which we live. It works together with both copper applications and the growing wireless infrastructure to meet our expanding communications needs. Thus, a full scale use of optical fiber systems in the access networks, through fixed or wireless linking, can reduce the role of wireless technology in transporting bandwidth over a larger distance. In 1992, the available highest capacity of commercial fiber-optic links was only 2.5 Gbps. Then, by 1996, WDM systems became available with 40 Gbps capacity. Now by 2012, this capacity has exceeded to 1.6 Tbps. With several conference papers presented in the last few years, it is clear that light wave systems operating at a bit rate of more than 10 Tbps are well within reach. Many excellent basic text and specialized books are available today aiming to educate and inform scientists, practicing engineers and technicians on the essentials in the field of optical technology. However, there is a need for books presenting both comprehensive and definitive guidelines for designing fiber-optic systems and core network architectures, further discussing the state of the art in the respective fields. The objective is to make it readable for beginners and design level audience. To fill th is emerging void and to enhance the understanding of readers regarding both comprehensive guidelines for designing fiber -optic systems and core network architectures together, I took decision to write this textbook using my research experience in this industry as well as knowledge acquired over eighteen years of teaching experience. I expect the reader, who has mastered this material, to be able to design, specify systems, and evaluate system components such as fibers, light sources, detectors, and couplers. The important principle of this book is to begin education, research, and development on optical communication networks to establish a close relation between network architectures and device capability. It is not feasible to produce core network ar chitecture without a useful system and a proper knowledge of device capabilities and limitations. Knowledge of the entire system is useful not only to the device designers but also to the high level engineering decision makers, project managers, technicians, marketing and sales personnel, and teachers. The fundamentals have been kept intact, but new technological advances and improvements have emerged to satisfy this demand. I have attempted to work these new ideas into my teaching carrier, practicing it with graduate and undergraduate students to help them understand the subject. This book is originally based on a set of notes I developed and used for numerous lectures on fiber optic technology over eighteen years at both graduate and undergraduate level. Participants in these courses had training ranging from one semester at undergraduate level through the masters level. Attendees included personnel from industry and academi a. Individual backgrounds were in chemistry, physics, and many areas of engineering. The organization of the book is as follows: The field itself is yet evolving. This book covers material that spans several disciplines ranging from physics to Electronic Engineeri ng, and Communication Engineering. This book is also suitable for many branches of engineering such as Instrumentation Engineerin g, Industrial Engineering, and Electronics Engineering. However, it is specially written for the final year Electronics & Telecommunication engineering and Electronics engineering students studying optical communication. The most unique feature of this book is its definitive approach to fill a void in an optical communication topic. Other major salient aspects of the book are its breadth of coverage, depth of analytical trea tment, maximum accountability of all topics, clear identification of recent developments and open problems, extensive numerical examples, number of review questions at the end-of-chapter, a set of solved examples, etc. The primary objective of the book remains the same. Specifically, it should be able to serve both as a textbook and a reference book. For this reason, the emphasis is on the basic understanding, but the engineering aspects are also discussed throughout the text. Chapter 1 provides Electromagnetic Spectrum & Optical spectral bands, Key elements of fiber optic communications system in the outset. Ray theory transmission includes TIR, Acceptance angle, Numerical aperture and its mathematics. Mode theory for optical propagation includes phase and group velocity, cutoff wavelength & group delay. This identifies with Fiber types, materials used; refractive index profiles & mode transmission. Optical fibers: Fiber Materials, Fiber Fabrication & Cable design. State of ar t of the Materials & fabrication Technology is discussed so that the reader get the continually evolving developments in the field providing motivation for their individual study in succeeding chapters. Chapter 2 contains the transmission characteristics of optical fibers that have attenuation due to absorption, scattering & bending. Signal Distortion in optical fibers containing Intra modal Dispersion, Material & Waveguide dispersion; Intermodal dispersion: MMSI, MMGI & modal noise; Overall fiber dispersion: MM & SM fibers. State of the art of fibers gives Dispersion shifted (DSF), NZDSF, Dispersion flattened, Polarization maintaining fibers which is now-a-days discussion topic. Fiber Nonlinearities have given due attention with respect to the scope of the book, as we can have a book specially written only on this topic. Here again and in every chapter, I have discussed the state of art of fiber with relevance. This discussion bridges the gap between already used technology and the technology under development. Chapter 3 contains a review of important topics like optical sources, their Wavelength and Material Considerations from the practical standpoint. LEDs & semiconductor LASERs are reviewed with respect to the subject. As the transmission occurs, here comes line coding and modulation schemes. Various optical transmitters used and their schemes. LED drive circuits for digital and analog transmission. Power launching and coupling, fiber optic splices, connectors and couplers and coupling losses. These topics have been discussed very thoroughly and given due to attention on extracting useful contents from them and a re presented with the tree structures and extensive comparison tables. Therefore, the contents have become very easy. The discussions in a number of sections were modified to improve clarity of the presentation. Chapter 4 takes further journey of optical detectors and various detection schemes that comprise of Material Considerations, PN, p-i-n, Avalanche photodiodes & photo transistors: Principle of working & characteristics and relative merits and demerits of photodiodes. Receiver Noise: Noise considerations in PN, p-i-n & avalanche photodiodes. Receiver structures, State of art: Optical detectors & detection scheme. Note that, these topics are arranged according to the learning sequence. However, those topic are so much dependent on each other. The reader is expected to understand it from several logical angles. Chapters 5 introduces design considerations in optical links and budgeting the optical link with the help of techniques like Link Power budget, Rise Time budget, presented in the book. The beginner or designer can easily evaluate the linking and budgeting if he or she follows the techniques presented in the book strictly. Further the discussion leads to analog Links, CNR, Multichannel transmission techniques. Chapter 6 presents the WDM and its enabling technologies. WDM local-area and WDM wide-area network architectures, respectively, discusses optical time-division multiplexing (TDM) and optical code-division multiplexing (CDM). Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is an approach that can exploit this bandwidth mismatch by requiring that each end -user's equipment operates only at electronic rate, but multiple WDM channels from different end-users may be multiplexed on the same fiber. Research and development on Optical Amplifiers, their classifications, principle of operation of a semiconductor optical amplifier have been covered retaining basics. In every stage of explanation, I have tried to extract the topic with help of comparison tables and tree structures that will give you better understanding. Then, SOA & Gain calculations of Fabry-Perot Amplifiers (FPA), SOA applications: advantages and drawbacks, Principle of operation of Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA), Gain and Noise in an EDFA. WDM Couplers/ Splitters, Excess loss, Insertion loss Coupling ratio, Isolation and Uniformity properties. State of art: WDM components. In this chapter, the design information developed throughout the book is applied to realistic problems. The appendices and a glossary will also be beneficial to many readers that contain units and symbols, different parametric tables. Most importantly, eight lab experiments are given, those ar e verified and can be done easily without having much equipment in the laboratory, however, one experiment on OTDR is listed, but covered in the chapter 5. Although, OTDR equipment may or may not be available in your institute or industry, but the objectiv e is that every reader should be aware of how the measurement is carried out. For this reason, I have covered it in my book. This edition of the book features an appendices exactly required for the curriculum and lab experiments that can be easily conducted even where all the lab equipments are not available. I strongly believe that the book will help to train the students and will prepare them better for an industrial job. I find that all the six chapters cover almost every detail within one semester course. To simplify the mathematics and reach a wider audience, many of the results presented in the text are not fully explained. Instructors of well -prepared students, such as seniors in electronic engineering, may wish to deepen students understanding. The book has been class tested in a graduate course in the form of notes. As a result, the book has been debugged properly, including the drill problems and review questions. As a summary and differentiation point of view, various comparison tables and tree structures are added. Typical problems have been added and few more are given for the students or reader to solve with hints. Some problems are merely plug-in type questions intended to give the student practice and confidence in understanding of the curriculum presented. Other problems take more thought and may even require finding and reviewing material from other sources. Answers to most problems are given at the end of each question and a new guide as a solutions manual will be available eventually. References for further reading is provides at the end of each chapter and also as an acknowledgement of their inventors and authors. The students can avail more information or resolve their doubts by email i.e. chinttanpublications@rediffmail.com as we give extra information and material for each title published time to time. The contents of the book reflect the state of the art of optical fiber communication systems in 2012. The primary role of thi s book is as a graduate-level textbook in the field of optical communications. The book can also serve as a reference text for researchers or wishing to enter into the field of optical fiber communications. The book is specially written for the students of final year in B.E. Electronics & Telecommunication engineering and Electronics Engineering and covers the entire syllabus of the subject Optical Fiber communication of the final year B.E. Electronics & Telecommunication engineering and Electronics Engineering. It is also seen as being of value to the students of Instrumentation and control Engineering. It can also be used by the students of M.E. in Electronics, Communication, Electrical, Industrial electronics Engg., MSc, BSc Electronics and Electronic Science. Although written primarily for graduate students, the book can also be used for an undergraduate course at the senior level with an appropriate selection of topics. Parts of the book can be used for several other related courses. For example, a course on optical waveguides, a course on optoelectronics, Fiber optic instrumentation. This is an introductory book. No background in fiber optics, or optic al communications, is presumed. Only the simplest concepts from basic electronics, algebra and trigonometry are invoked in explaining the characteristics of fiber systems. Appropriate background material on optics, electronics, and communications is introduced in the text as needed. The science required is basic physical science. Key elements of science are developed in appropriate chapters . The mathematics required is just the ability to handle the numbers, integration, summation, interpret graphs and in a few instances, handle s imple algebraic equation. It is assumed that the reader is acquainted with elementary differential equations and fundamental concepts of probability law. The material assumes a diverse background of fundamental courses in Electronics and communication engineering: circuit theory with Laplace transform, digital and analog electronic circuit design, classical electromagnetics, and introductory computer science. - Mandar J. Khurjekar Author s Acknowledgements Although my name is the only one to appear on the cover, a large number of persons have contributed to this book either direc tly or indirectly. It is difficult to mention all of them by name. I thank my graduate students and the students who helped to im prove my class notes through their questions and comments. Thanks are due to many instructors who not only adopted these notes for their courses , but have also pointed out the mistakes and thus have helped me in improving the book. I am particularly grateful to Dr Y. H. Dandawate, (Dean V.I.I.T., Pune), who gave an inspiration to start writing a book on this subject and also thank my colleagues and friends at V.I.I.T. who always desired that I should put my efforts in writing. This book wouldn't have been possible without the support of my study on optical communication from several Institutions such as: UMIST, University of Manchester, UK, in 1982, (Studied under UN fellowship); My Guide Dr Rockliff (UMIST, UK); CW&PRS, Khadakawasla, Pune; Literature and guidance by Dr. Leo Hoogenboom, (adviser at MTI, USA) formerly UN Expert to CW&PRS in 1984. I got opportunities to attend several lectures on this topic delivered by top persons in this field. From across the countries, under support of International conferences, National conferences and seminars conducted under the auspices of IEEE, IETE, University of Pune and United Nations (UN). I always draw inspiration for studies from Dr. R. K. Shevgaonkar (formerly Vice Chancellor, University of Pune). My practical knowledge is enhanced through lectures and lab sessions at VIT and VIIT Pune on this subject and lectures at Bharati Vidyapeeth and few other engineering colleges in Maharashtra. My technical papers on Transducers, employing optical fiber as sensing element at NSPTS conferences in Pune University deepened my knowledge. I extend thanks to my colleagues and students at several colleges, for whom I gave talk on optical fiber, and received valuable additions on the subject. Of late my students and colleagues have encouraged me to write book on this very important subject, they remain the source of my energy. Quality control for a book can be ensured through independent technical reviews. In this regard, my editor is deeply apprecia ted for his time, effort, suggestions for improvement, and feedback on the book's manuscript and/or its initial propo sal. His never-ending encouragement, moral support and patience which he showed while the book was in process. We both took an active participation regarding the contents of this book and have made essential additions and deletions wherever and whenever re quired. He has debugged the book and provided many of the end-of-chapter problems and also contributed several problems and organized these exercises; his efforts are highly appreciated. I am thankful to Dr. A.D. Shaligram who gave the insight and material related to measurement and transducers in the book. I am grateful for the fine effort by the Chinttan Publications group for providing the comprehensive technical review. I appreciate the help of Mrs. Bhaktti Dewalia, who typed this book and made numerous corrections with a smile. Last, but not least, I thank my wife, Aruna and my son Neel for understanding why I needed to spend many months on the book instead of spending quality time with them. Both of them have helped to complete writing, physically, by inspiration and persistent encouragement. My daughter in law Jai and my son Om gave me suggestions via emails from Baltimore, thanks to them. My students Mr. Raj Patil and Aniket Patil, V.I.I.T. Alumni and formerly trainee at TIFR Mumbai, have contributed on new technologies, many thanks to them. Also, thank to Mr. Anuj kulkarni, my student at VIIT and VIIT Alumni, has helped in designing problems on some chapters. My efforts have proved fruitful in the form of this book which came into existence with the active support from family, friends, and many other well wishers. I welcome email from readers who wish to provide any sort of feedback: errors, comments, criticisms, and suggestions for improvements. - Mandar J. Khurjekar Publisher s Acknowledgements Many thanks again to Dr Y. H. Dandawate, (Dean V.I.I.T., Pune), for suggesting the name of Prof. M. J. Khurjekar, which led to another ongoing journey of publishing this book after successful publication of Electronic Product design in 2011. Recommendation from the Universities of Pune and Mumbai, encourages me to publish the much qualitative book that gives standard contents, simplicity, and usefulness. I am glad to have an authoring of Prof. M. J. Khurjekar with careful editing of contents and completing the whole activity and his continuous urge to improve authoring skills after going through a book publishing activity from start to end. The chapters have been reviewed many times and have made changes as per the learning and logical sequence to make a standard book for this subject. In fact revision of this book time has been doubled than that was for the earlier book. I am very much thankful to my wife, Bhaktti for taking efforts to work within minimum possible time and type the original manuscript with utmost care, artistic taste, skill, and dedication, unparalleled in my own experience. I am eternally grateful for the love, support, and dedication from all my family members. I am also thankful to family members of the Prof. M.J. Khurjekar for their warm welcome and support. Many thanks to all the faculty members & teachers in Mumbai & Pune University & those who supported & encouraged me to publish the various useful & needful books. The books that are bridging the gap of contents & simplification between reference materials, application notes, and applied curriculum of engineering course in Mumbai & Pune University will further conform to all the curriculums in Indian Universities. Every time I am trying to get more proficient in editing and publishing towards improving the quality of the book. The suggestions put forth, if any, will be acknowledged and we will try to implement it in our book, as our aim is to produce a standardize book for the students. I am eternally grateful to the inventors, creators, authors and scientists of this field for giving such a great knowledge and technologies to the world. Chinttan N. Dewalia D.I.E. (Institute of Polytechnic Engg, Lonere, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar University) B. E. Instrumentation Engg. (Dr. D.Y. Patil College of Engg., Pune) Comments Welcome Your comments are important to us! We want our books to be as helpful as possible. Please send us your comments about this or o ther books in one of the following ways: a. By a telephone number given on the second page of this book. b. Drop us a word at the following address: chinttanpublications@rediffmail.com Editing, assessment & review: Chinttan N. Dewalia Typesetting and Art: Mrs. Bhaktti C. Dewalia J bov c n< & D i ml c v D C m J v L c n j p b jC m c H &l ... SYLLABUS REFERENCES (In accordance with the revised University syllabus 2008 (w.e.f. June 2011) for B.E. Electronics & Telecommunication Engg .,and B.E. Electronics Engg.) Unit 1: Fiber optic communications system: Electromagnetic Spectrum & Optical spectral bands, Key elements of fiber optic communications system, Advantages of optical fiber communication over other communication systems, Ray theory transmission: TIR, Acceptance angle, Numerical aperture, Electromagnetic mode theory for opti cal propagation: phase and group velocity, cutoff wavelength & group delay. Fiber types according to: materials used; refractive index profiles & mode transmission. Optical fibers: Fiber Materials, Fiber Fabrication & Cable design. State of art: Materials & fabrication Technology Go to Unit 2: Optical Fiber for Telecommunication: Transmission characteristics of optical fibers: Attenuation due to absorption, scattering & bending, Signal Distortion in optical fibers: Intra modal Dispersion: Material & Waveguide dispersion; Intermodal dispersion: MMSI, MMGI & modal noise; Overall fiber dispersion: MM & SM fibers. Special use fibers: Dispersion shifted (DSF), NZDSF, Dispersion flattened, Polarization maintaining fibers, Fiber Nonlinearities. State of art: Fiber. Go to Unit 3: Optical Sources & Transmitters: Introduction to optical sources: Wavelength and Material Considerations, LEDs & semiconductor LASERs: principle of working & their Characteristics. Line coding . Different modulation schemes, Optical transmitters: LED drive circuits for digital and analog transmission. Power launching & Coupling: Fiber optic splices, connectors & couplers & Coupling losses. State of art: LEDs and LASERs. Go to Unit 4: Optical detectors & Receivers: Introduction: Material Considerations, PN, P-i-N, Avalanche photodiodes & photo transistors: Principle of working & characteristics and relative merits and demerits of photodiodes. Receiver Noise: Noise considerations in PN, P-i-N & Avalanche photodiodes. Receiver structures, State of art: Optical detectors & detection scheme Go to Unit 5: Design considerations in optical links: Point to point Links: System design considerations, Link Power budget, Rise Time budget, Analog Links: CNR, Multichannel transmission techniques. Go to Unit 6: Advanced Optical Systems: Overview of WDM, Optical Amplifiers: Classification of OAs, Principle of operation of a Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) & Gain calculations of Fabry-Perot Amplifiers (FPA). SOA applications: advantages and drawbacks, Principle of operation of Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA), Gain and Noise in an EDFA. WDM Couplers/ Splitters: Excess loss, Insertion loss Coupling ratio, Isolation and Uniformity properties. State of art: WDM components. Go to

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